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MUSIC NOTATION
AND TERMINOLOGY
By KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL MUSIC
OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC

 
THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY
NEW YORK 1914

Copyright, 1914, by
THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY

[Pg iii]PREFACE
The study of music notation and terminology by classes in conservatories and in
music departments of colleges and normal schools is a comparative innovation,
one reason for the non-existence of such courses in the past being the lack of a
suitable text-book, in which might be found in related groups clear and accurate
definitions of the really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing
interest in music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the
present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more systematic and
therefore more efficient in turning out a more intelligent class of pupils, it
has become increasingly necessary to establish courses in which the prospective
teacher of music (after having had considerable experience with music itself)
might acquire a concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of
terms, most of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many
of which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps knows
accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly and economically
to others.
To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the author
has been for several years gathering material from all available sources, and it
is hoped that the arrangement of this material in related groups as here
presented will serve to give the student not only some insight into the present
meaning of a goodly number of terms, but will also enable him to see more
clearly why certain terms have the meaning which at present attaches to them. To
this latter end the [Pg iv]derivations of many of the terms are given in
connection with their definition.
The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of terms
has of course been influenced largely by the author's own individual experience,
hence many teachers will probably feel that important terms have been omitted
that should have been included. For this state of affairs no apology is offered
except that it would probably be impossible to write a book on this subject
which would satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of
terms.
In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to use such
words as note, tone, et cetera with at least a fair degree of accuracy, and
while the attitude of the author on this point may be criticized as being
puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his opinion that the next generation
of music students and teachers will be profited by a more accurate use of
certain terms that have been inaccurately used for so long that the present
generation has to a large extent lost sight of the fact that the use is
inaccurate. The author is well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of
growth rather than of edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can
actually begin to come, the need of reform must be felt by a fairly large number
of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few musicians realize
the need of any change in music terminology that the changes recommended by
committees who have given the matter careful thought are so slow in being
adopted. It is hoped that some few points at which reform in the terminology of
music is necessary may be brought to the attention of a few additional musicians
thru this volume, and that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.
It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the teacher
emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms [Pg v]studied, but
the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter purpose a pronouncing
index has been appended.
It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have been drawn,
but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear and beautifully
worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt or the Century
Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an almost all-inclusive
range of topics found in the new edition of Grove's Dictionary. Especial thanks
for valuable suggestions as to the arrangement of the material, etc., are also
due to Dr. Raymond H. Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur
E. Heacox, Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I.
Rice, Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of
the Music Teachers' National Association who have offered valuable advice along
certain specific lines.
K.W.G.
Oberlin Conservatory of Music, June, 1913

[Pg vii]CONTENTS
Chapter I.—Some Principles of Correct Notation 1
1. Note.
2, 3. Rules for turning stems.
4. Use of cross-stroke.
5. Rest.
6. G Clef.
7. F Clef and C Clef.
8. Sharp and double-sharp.
9. Flat, double-flat and natural.
10. Tie.
11. Dot after a note.

Chapter II.—Symbols of Music Defined 5
12. Staff and Great Staff.
13. Leger Lines.
14. Staff degrees.
15. Clef.
16. Treble and bass Clefs.
17. Movable C Clef.
18. Sharp.
19. Flat.
20. Double-sharp and double-flat.

Chapter III.—Symbols of Music Defined (continued) 8
21. Natural
22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key.
24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar.
26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees.
27. Enharmonic.
28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.
29. Rests.
30. Lists of notes and rests.
31. English names for.
32. Less common forms.
33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.
34. Bar.
35. Double-bar.

Chapter IV.—Abbreviations, Signs, etc. 13
36-40. Signs for repetition.
41. Continuation.
42. Rest.
43. Pause.
44. Hold.
45-47. Alteration of Pitch.
48. Octave names.

Chapter V.—Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (continued) 17
49-51. Dots after notes.
52. Dots over or under notes.
53. Dash over note.
54. Tie.
55. Slur.
56. Slur or tie with dots.
57. Dash over note.
58. Dash and dot over note.
59. Accent marks.
60. m.d., m.g., etc.
61. Arpeggio.
62. Messa di voce.
63. Violin bow signs.

Chapter VI.—Embellishments 22
64. Definition and kinds.
65. Trill.
66-68. Mordent.
69-72. Turn.
73, 74. Appoggiatura.
75. Acciaccatura.

Chapter VII.—Scales 27
76. Definition, and old forms.
77. Origin.
78. Key.
79. Three general classes.
80. Diatonic, defined.
81. Major diatonic.
82. Tetrachords.
83. The fifteen positions.

Chapter VIII.—Scales (continued) 33
84. Minor diatonic.
85. Original form.
86. Harmonic minor.
87. Melodic minor.
88. Eleven positions.
89. Relative minor.
90. Tonic minor.
91. Diatonic scale names.
92. Syllable-names.
93. Chromatic scale.
94. Nine positions.
[Pg viii]95. Whole-step scale.

Chapter IX.—Auxiliary Words and Endings 42

Chapter X.—Measure 44
97. Definition.—Two essential characteristics. Rhythm vers measure.
98. Syncopation.
99. Simple and compound measures.
100. Commonest varieties.
101. Other varieties.
102. Rare varieties.
103. The signs, C and .

Chapter XI.—Tempo 48
104. Misuses of the word "time."
105-107. How to correct these: by substituting "rhythm," "measure,"
and "tempo."
108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo.
109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.

Chapter XII.—Tempo (continued) 52
110-119. Tempo-terms.

Chapter XIII.—Dynamics 56
120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.

Chapter XIV.—Terms Relating to Forms and Styles 62
132. Definition of form.
133. Basis of form.
134. Difference between form and style.
135. Introductory.
136. Two styles.
137. Monophonic music.
138. Polyphonic music.
139. Counterpoint.
140. Imitation.
141. Canon.
142. School round.
143. Fugue.

Chapter XV.—Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (continued) 67
144. Phrase-section.
145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.
146. Primary forms.
147. Theme.
148. Thematic development.
149. Rondo.
150. Suite.
151. Dances in suite.
152. Scherzo.
153. Sonata.
154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.
155. Concerto.
156. Symphony.
157. Sonata-form.
158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.
159. Program music.
160. Symphonic or tone poem.

Chapter XVI.—Terms Relating to Vocal Music 76
161. Anthem.
162. A capella.
163. Motet.
164. Choral.
165. Mass.
166. Cantata.
167. Oratorio.
168. Opera.
169. Libretto.
170. Recitative.
171. Aria.
172. Lied.
173. Ballad.
174. Folk-song.
175. Madrigal.
176. Glee.
177. Part-song.

Chapter XVII.—Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals 82
178. The four elements of music.
179. Rhythm.
180. Melody.
181. Harmony.
182. Timbre.
183. Interval—harmonic and melodic.
184. Number name and specific name.
185. Prime.
186. Second.
187. Third.
188. Fourth.
189. Fifth.
190. Sixth.
191. Seventh.
192. Octave.
193. Ninth.
194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals.
195. Inverted intervals.

Chapter XVIII.—Chords, Cadences, etc. 87
196. Chord. Triad. Root.
197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads.
198. The Common chords.
199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion.
200. Figured bass.
201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.
202. Cadence.
203. Authentic cadence.
204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic.
205. Plagal cadence.
206. Half-cadence.
207. Deceptive cadence.
208. Sequence.
209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh.
[Pg ix]210. Suspension.
211. Retardation.
212. Anticipation.
213. Pedal point.
214. Close and open position.
215. Transposition.

Chapter XIX.—Miscellaneous Terms 95

Chapter XX.—Miscellaneous Terms (continued) 98

Appendix A.—The History of Music Notation 101

Appendix B.—Musical Instruments 112
1. Two classes.
2. Piano.
3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.
5. Instruments used for ensemble playing.
6. Band.
7. Orchestra.
8. The stringed instruments.
9. Wood-wind.
10. Brass.
11. Percussion.
12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra.
13. Books recommended.
14. Violin.
15. Viola.
16. Violoncello.
17. Double-bass.
18. Flute.
19. Piccolo.
20. Oboe family.
21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone.
22. French horn.
23. Trumpet.
24. Cornet.
25. Trombone.
26. Tuba.
27. Kettle-drum.
28. Harp.

Appendix C.—Acoustics 131
1. Definition.
2. Sound, production of.
3. Sound, transmission of.
4. Rate of travel.
5. Intensification of.
6. Classification of.
7. Tones, properties of.
8. Pitch.
9. Intensity.
10. Quality.
11. Overtones.
12. Equal temperament.
13. Standards of pitch.

Appendix D.—Terminology Reform 139

Appendix E.—Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3 149

Pronouncing Index 159

[Pg 1]CHAPTER I
Some Principles of Correct Notation
1. The note (from nota—Latin—a mark or sign) consists of either one, two, or
three parts, () these being referred to respectively as head, stem, and hook.
The hook is often called tail or cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right
side of the head when turned up, but on the left side when turned down.[1]  The
hook is always on the right side.[2]
In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with a heavy pressure
on the pen point, but in writing at the board they are most easily made by using
a piece of chalk about an inch long, turned on its side.
2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following rules
for turning stems apply: (1) If the note-head is below the third line, the stem
must turn up. (2) If the note-head is above the third line the stem must turn
down. (3) If the note-head is on the third line the stem is turned either up or
down with due regard to the symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the
note occurs. The following examples will illustrate these points.
 

[Listen]
[Pg 2]
3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper part all
turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that the parts may be
clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano and other instruments on
which complete chords can be sounded by one performer and also in simple,
four-part vocal music in which all voices have approximately the same rhythm,
several notes often have one stem in common as in Fig. 3.
 

[Listen]
 

[Listen]
 
4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written in groups
of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by one cross-stroke.
In such a case all the stems must of course be turned the same way, the
direction being determined by the position of the majority of note-heads in the
group. Notes thus stroked may be of the same or of different denomination. See
Fig. 4.
 

[Listen]
 
In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to each
note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.)
5. Rests, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by using a piece
of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. 1.) The double-whole rest, whole
rest, and half rest occupy the third space unless for the sake of clearness in
writing two parts on the same staff they are written higher or lower. The rests
of smaller denomination may be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being
always placed on the spaces. The hook[Pg 3] of the eighth rest is usually placed
on the third space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.
6. The G clef should be begun at the second line rather than below the staff.
Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it most easily in
this way, and the process may be further simplified by dividing it into two
parts, thus, . The descending stroke crosses the ascending curve at or near the
fourth line. The circular part of the curve occupies approximately the first and
second spaces.
7. The F clef is made either thus, , or thus,  the dots being placed one on
either side of the fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that
the clef marks. The C clef has also two forms,  and .
8. The sharp is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy slanting
ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right, ♯. The sharp
should never be made thus, #.
The double sharp is made either thus  or *, the first form being at present the
more common.
9. The flat is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the curve being
made without lifting pen from paper. The double flat consists of two flats,[3]
♭♭. The natural or cancel is made in two strokes, down-right and right-down,
thus  ♮.
10. The tie usually connects the heads of notes, thus .
11. The dot after a note always appears on a space, whether the note-head is on
a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot after a note on a line, the
dot usually appears on the space above that line if the next note is higher in
position and on the space below it if the following note is lower.[Pg 4]

[Listen]
 
Note.—Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a theory, and in order
to form the habit of writing correctly, drill is necessary. This may perhaps be
best secured by asking students to write (at the board or on ruled paper) from
verbal dictation, thus: Teacher says,
"Key of B♭, three-quarter measure: First measure, DO a quarter note, RE a
quarter, and MI a quarter. Second measure, SOL a quarter, LA a quarter, and SOL
a quarter. Third measure, LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth
measure, high DO a dotted half." Pupils respond by writing the exercise
dictated, after which mistakes in the turning of stems, etc., are corrected. The
pitch names may be dictated instead of the syllables if desired, and still
further practice may be provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to
other keys.

[Pg 5]CHAPTER II
Symbols of Music Defined
12. A staff is a collection of parallel lines, together with the spaces
belonging to them. The modern staff has five lines and six spaces, these being
ordinarily referred to as first line, second line, third line, fourth line, and
fifth line (beginning with the lowest); and space below (i.e., space below the
first line), first space, second space, third space, fourth space, and space
above.
The definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of the
portions of the "great staff," the latter term being often applied to the
combination of treble and bass staffs (with one leger line between) so commonly
used in piano music, etc.
13. The extent of the staff may be increased either above or below by the
addition of short lines called leger lines,[4] and notes may be written on
either these lines or on the spaces above and below them.
14. The lines and spaces constituting the staff (including leger lines if any)
are often referred to as staff degrees, i.e., each separate line and space is
considered to be "a degree of the staff." The tones of a scale are also
sometimes referred to as "degrees of the scale."
15. A clef[5] is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches are to be
represented by its lines and spaces. Thus, e.g., the G clef shows us not only
that the second line of the staff represents G, but that the first line
represents E, the first space F, etc. The F clef similarly shows us that the
fifth line[Pg 6] of the bass staff represents the first A below middle C, the
fourth line the first F below middle C, etc.
The student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of the
letters G and F, which (among others) were used to designate the pitches
represented by certain lines when staff notation was first inaugurated. For a
fuller discussion of this matter see Appendix A, p. 101.
16. When the G clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the treble
staff, and when the F clef is used, as the bass staff. Such expressions as
"singing from the treble clef," or "singing in the treble clef," and "singing in
the bass clef" are still frequently heard, but are preferably replaced by
"singing from the treble staff," and "singing from the bass staff." Fig. 6 shows
the permanent names of lines and spaces when the G and F clefs are used.[6]
 

 
17. The movable C clef  or , formerly in very common use, is now utilized for
only two purposes, viz., (1) in music written for certain orchestral instruments
(cello, viola, etc.) of extended range, in order to avoid having to use too many
leger lines; and (2) for indicating the tenor part in vocal music. This latter
usage seems also to be disappearing however, and the tenor part is commonly
written on the treble staff, it being understood that the tones are to be sung
an octave lower than the notes would indicate.[Pg 7]The C clef as used in its
various positions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and 9. It will be noted that in each
case the line on which the clef is placed represents "middle C."
 

 
18. A sharp is a character which causes the degree of the staff with which it is
associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it otherwise would.
Thus in Fig. 10 (a) the fifth line and first space represent the pitch F, but in
Fig. 10 (b) these same staff degrees represent an entirely different tone—F♯.
The student should note that the sharp does not then raise anything; it merely
causes a staff degree to represent a higher tone than it otherwise would. There
is just as much difference between F and F♯ as between B and C, and yet one
would never think of referring to C as "B raised"!
 

 
19. A flat is a character that causes the degree of the staff with which it is
associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it otherwise would. (See
note under Sec. 18 and apply the same discussion here.)
20. A double-sharp causes the staff degree on which it is placed to represent a
pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp. Similarly, a
double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed to represent a pitch
one whole-step lower than it would without any flat.
Double-sharps and double-flats are generally used on staff degrees that have
already been sharped or flatted, therefore their practical effect is to cause
staff degrees to represent pitches respectively a half-step higher and a
half-step lower than would be represented by those same degrees in their
diatonic condition. Thus in Fig. 10 (b) the first space in its diatonic
condition[7] represents F-sharp, and the double-sharp on this degree would cause
it to represent a pitch one-half step higher than F-sharp, i.e., F-double-sharp.

[Pg 8]CHAPTER III
Symbols of Music Defined (Continued)
21. The natural[8] (sometimes called cancel) annuls the effect of previous
sharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the measure in which it
occurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the combination of a natural with a
sharp, or a natural with a flat is often found: in this case only one sharp or
flat is annulled. (Sometimes also the single sharp or flat will be found by
itself, cancelling the double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used
when a composition changes key, as in Fig. 11, where a change from E to G is
shown.
 

 
22. The group of sharps or flats (or absence of them) at the beginning of a
staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is written. They are
called collectively the key-signature.
23. The same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys, the major key,
or its relative minor, hence in order to determine in what key a melody is one
must note whether the tones are grouped about the major tonic DO or the minor
tonic LA. In a harmonized composition it is almost always possible to determine
the key by referring to the last bass note; if the final chord is clearly the DO
chord the composition is in the major key, but if this final chord is clearly
the LA chord then it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the[Pg
9] minor key. Thus if a final chord appears as that in Fig. 12 the composition
is clearly in G major, while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is just as surely
in E minor.
 

[Listen]
 
24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps and double-flats, occurring in the
course of the composition (i.e., after the key signature) are called
accidentals, whether they actually cause a staff degree to represent a different
pitch as in Fig. 14 or simply make clear a notation about which there might
otherwise be some doubt as in Fig. 15, measure two. The effect of such
accidentals terminates at the bar.
 

[Listen]
 
25. In the case of a tie across a bar an accidental remains in force until the
combined value of the tied notes expires. In Fig. 16 first measure, third beat,
an accidental sharp makes the third space represent the pitch C sharp. By virtue
of the tie across the bar the third space continues to represent C sharp thru
the first beat of the second measure, but for the remainder of the measure the
third space will represent C unless the sharp is repeated as in Fig. 17.
 

[Listen]
 
26. The following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches different
from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the beginner in the
study of music notation. These[Pg 10] rules are quoted from "The Worcester
Musical Manual," by Charles I. Rice.
1. To sharp a natural degree, use a sharp. Fig. 18.
2. To sharp a sharped degree, use a double sharp. Fig. 19.
3. To sharp a flatted degree, use a natural. Fig. 20.
4. To flat a natural degree, use a flat. Fig. 21.
5. To flat a flatted degree, use a double flat. Fig. 22.
6. To flat a sharped degree, use a natural. Fig. 23.
 

[Listen]
 
27. When two different notations represent the same pitch, the word enharmonic
is applied. Thus we may say that F sharp and G flat (on keyboard instruments at
least) are enharmonically the same.
This word enharmonic is used in such expressions as enharmonic change,
enharmonic keys, enharmonic interval, enharmonic modulation, enharmonic
relation, etc., and in all such combinations it has the same meaning, viz.—a
change in notation but no change in the pitch represented.
28. A note is a character expressing relative duration, which when placed on a
staff indicates that a certain tone is to be sounded for a certain relative
length of time. The pitch of the tone to be sounded is shown by the position of
the note on the staff, while the length of time it is to be prolonged is shown
by the shape of the note. Thus e.g., a half-note on the second line of the
treble staff indicates that a specific pitch (g') is to be played or sung for a
period of time twice as long as would be indicated by a quarter-note in the same
composition.
29. A rest is a character which indicates a rhythmic silence of a certain
relative length.[Pg 11]30. The notes and rests in common use are as follows:
      Whole-note. An open note-head without stem.
      Half-note. An open note-head with stem.
      Quarter-note. A closed note-head with stem.
      Eighth-note. A closed note-head with stem and one hook.
      Sixteenth-note. A closed note-head with stem and two hooks.
      Thirty-second-note. A closed note-head with stem and three hooks.
      Whole-rest.
      Half-rest.
      Quarter-rest.
      Eighth-rest.
      Sixteenth-rest.
      Thirty-second-rest.

31. The English names for these notes are:
Whole-note—semi-breve.
Half-note—minim.
Quarter-note—crotchet.
Eighth-note—quaver.
Sixteenth-note—semi-quaver.
Thirty-second-note—demi-semi-quaver.

The corresponding rests are referred to by the same system of nomenclature:
e.g., semi-breve rest, etc.
32. Sixty-fourth and one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes are occasionally found,
but are not in common use. The double-whole-note (breve), made  or , is still
used, especially in English music, which frequently employs the half-note as the
beat-unit. Thus in four-half measure the breve would be necessary to indicate a
tone having four beats.
33. The whole-rest has a peculiarity of usage not common to any of the other
duration symbols, viz., that it is often employed as a measure-rest, filling an
entire measure of beats, no matter what the measure-signature may be. Thus, not
only in four-quarter-measure, but in two-quarter, three-quarter, six-eighth, and
other varieties, the whole-rest fills the[Pg 12] entire measure, having a value
sometimes greater, sometimes less than the corresponding whole-note. Because of
this peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed Takt-pausa (measure-rest) by
the Germans.
34. A bar is a vertical line across the staff, dividing it into measures. The
word bar is often used synonymously with measure by orchestral conductors and
others; thus, "begin at the fourteenth bar after J." This use of the word,
although popular, is incorrect.
35. A double-bar consists of two vertical lines across the staff, at least one
of the two being a heavy line. The double bar marks the end of a division,
movement, or entire composition.

[Pg 13]CHAPTER IV
Abbreviations, Signs, Etc.
36. A double bar (or single heavy bar) with either two or four dots indicates
that a section is to be repeated. If the repeat marks occur at only one point
the entire preceding part is to be repeated, but if the marks occur twice (the
first time at the right of the bar but the second time at the left), only the
section thus enclosed by the marks is to be repeated.
 

 
37. Sometimes a different cadence (or ending) is to be used for the repetition,
and this is indicated as in Fig. 24.
 

 
38. The Italian word bis is occasionally used to indicate that a certain passage
or section is to be repeated. This use is becoming obsolete.
39. The words da capo (D.C.) mean literally "from the head," i.e., repeat from
the beginning. The words dal segno (D.S.) indicate a repetition from the sign (
or ) instead of from the beginning.
In the case of both D.C. and D.S. the word fine (meaning literally the end) is
ordinarily used to designate the point at which the repeated section is to
terminate. The fermata () was formerly in common use for this same purpose, but
is seldom so employed at present.[Pg 14]D.C. (sin[9]) al fine means—repeat from
the beginning to the word "fine."
D.C. al  means—repeat to the fermata (or hold).
D.C. senza repetizione, or D.C. ma senza repetizione, both mean—repeat from the
beginning, but without observing other repeat marks during the repetition.
D.C. e poi la coda means—repeat the first section only to the mark , then skip
to the coda. (See p. 74, Sec. 157, for discussion of coda).
40. In certain cases where the repetition of characteristic figures can be
indicated without causing confusion, it is the practice of composers (especially
in orchestral music) to make use of certain signs of repetition. Some of the
commonest of these abbreviations are shown in the following examples.
 

[Listen]
 
In Fig. 28 the repetition of an entire measure is called for.
 

[Listen]
 
41. The word simile (sometimes segue) indicates that a certain effect previously
begun is to be continued, as e.g., staccato playing, pedalling, style of bowing
in violin music, etc. The word segue is also occasionally used to show that an
accompaniment figure (especially in orchestral music) is to be continued.
42. When some part is to rest for two or more measures several methods of
notation are possible. A rest of two measures is usually indicated thus . Three
measures thus . Four measures thus . Rests of more than[Pg 15] four measures are
usually indicated in one of the following ways: . Sometimes the number of
measures is written directly on the staff, thus; .
43. The letters G.P. (general pause, or grosse pause), the words lunga pausa, or
simply the word lunga, are sometimes written over a rest to show that there is
to be a prolonged pause or rest in all parts. Such expressions are found only in
ensemble music, i.e., music in which several performers are engaged at the same
time.
44. The fermata or hold  over a note or chord indicates that the tone is to be
prolonged, the duration of the prolongation depending upon the character of the
music and the taste of the performer or conductor. It has already been noted
that the hold over a bar was formerly used to designate the end of the
composition, as the word fine is employed at present, but this usage has
practically disappeared and the hold over the bar now usually indicates a short
rest between two sections of a composition.
45. The sign 8va...... (an abbreviation of all'ottava, literally at the octave)
above the staff, indicates that all tones are to be sounded an octave higher
than the notes would indicate. When found below the staff the same sign serves
to indicate that the tones are to be sounded an octave lower. The term 8va bassa
has also this latter signification.
46. Sometimes the word loco (in place) is used to show that the part is no
longer to be sounded an octave higher (or lower), but this is more often
indicated by the termination of the dotted (or wavy) line.
47. The sign Col 8 (coll'ottava—with the octave) shows that the tones an octave
higher or lower are to be sounded with the tones indicated by the printed notes.

48. For the sake of definiteness in referring to pitches, a particular name is
applied to each octave, and all pitches in[Pg 16] the octave are referred to by
means of a uniform nomenclature. The following figure will make this system
clear:
 

 
Thus e.g., "great G" (written simply G), is the G represented by the first line
of the bass staff. Small A (written a), is represented by the fifth line of the
bass staff. Two-lined G, (written ), is represented by the space above the fifth
line, treble staff. Three-lined C, (written ), is represented by the second
added line above the treble staff, etc. The one-lined octave may be described as
the octave from middle C to the B represented by the third line of the treble
staff, and any tone within that octave is referred to as "one-lined."
Thus—one-lined D, one-lined G, etc.
In scientific works on acoustics, etc., the pitches in the sub octave (or
sub-contra octave as it is often called) are referred to as C2, D2, E2, etc.;
those in the contra octave as C1, D1, etc.; in the great octave, as c1, d1,
etc.; in the small octave as c2, d2, etc.

[Pg 17]CHAPTER V
Abbreviations, Signs, Etc., (Continued)
49. A dot after a note shows that the value of the note is to be half again as
great as it would be without the dot, i.e., the value is to be three-halves that
of the original note.
 

 
50. When two dots follow the note the second dot adds half as much as the first
dot has added, i.e., the entire value is seven-fourths that of the original
note.
 

 
51. When three dots follow the note the third dot adds one-half the value added
by the second, i.e., the entire value of the triple-dotted note is
fifteen-eighths that of the original note.
Transcriber's Note: Error in original; correct value is fifteen-sixteenths
 

 
52. A dot over or under a note is called the staccato mark and indicates that
the tone is to be sounded and then instantly released.  In music for organ and
for some other instruments the staccato note is sometimes interpreted
differently, this depending on the character of the instrument.
On stringed instruments of the violin family the staccato effect is usually
secured by a long, rapid stroke of the bow for each tone; in the case of harp
and drum the hand is quickly brought in contact with the vibrating body, thus
stopping the tone instantly. On the organ the tone is often prolonged to
one-half the value of the printed note before the keys are released.
53. The wedge-shaped dash over the note (staccatissimo) was formerly employed to
indicate a tone still more detached[Pg 18] than that indicated by the dot, but
this sign is really superfluous, and is seldom used at present.
54. A tie is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes that call for the
same tone. It indicates that they are to be sounded as one tone having a
duration equal to the combined value of both notes. E.g., a half-note tied to a
quarter-note would indicate a tone equal in duration-length to that shown by a
dotted half-note; two half-notes tied would indicate a tone equal in duration to
that shown by a whole-note. (See examples under Sections 49, 50, and 51).
Fig. 30 illustrates the more common variety of tie, while Fig. 31 shows an
example of the enharmonic[10] tie.
 

[Listen]
 
55. The slur is used in so many different ways that it is impossible to give a
general definition. It consists of a curved line, sometimes very short (in which
case it looks like the tie), but sometimes very long, connecting ten, fifteen,
or more notes. Some of the more common uses of the slur are:
A. To indicate legato (sustained or connected) tones, as contrasted with
staccato (detached) ones.
In violin music this implies playing all tones thus slurred in one bow; in music
for the voice and for wind instruments it implies singing or playing them in one
breath.
B. As a phrase-mark, in the interpretation of which the first tone of the phrase
is often accented slightly, and the last one shortened in value.
This interpretation of the phrase is especially common when the phrase is short
(as in the two-note phrase), and when the tones constituting the phrase are of
short duration, e.g., the phrase given in Fig. 32 would be played approximately
as written in Fig. 33.
 

[Listen]
 
[Pg 19]But if the notes are of greater value, especially in slow tempi, the slur
merely indicates legato, i.e., sustained or connected rendition. Fig. 34
illustrates such a case.
 

[Listen]
 
This is a matter of such diverse usage that it is difficult to generalize
regarding it. The tendency seems at present to be in the direction of using the
slur (in instrumental music) as a phrase-mark exclusively, it being understood
that unless there is some direction to the contrary, the tones are to be
performed in a connected manner.
C. In vocal music, to show that two or more tones are to be sung to one syllable
of text. See Fig. 35.
 

[Listen]
 
In notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) this same thing is often
indicated by stroking the stems together as in Fig. 36. This can only be done in
cases where the natural grouping of notes in the measure will not be destroyed.
 

[Listen]
 
D. To mark special note-groups (triplets, etc.), in which case the slur is
accompanied by a figure indicating the number of notes in the group. See Fig. 37
(a)
The most common of these irregular note-groups is the triplet, which consists of
three notes to be performed in the time ordinarily given to two of the same
value. Sometimes the triplet consists of only two notes as in Fig. 37 (b). In
such a case the first two of the three notes composing the triplet are
considered to be tied.
 

[Listen]
 
[Pg 20]When the triplet form is perfectly obvious, the Fig. 3 (as well as the
slur) may be omitted.
Other examples of irregular note-groups, together with the names commonly
applied, follow.
 

 
56. The combination of slur or tie and dots over the notes indicates that the
tones are to be somewhat detached, but not sharply so.
This effect is sometimes erroneously termed portamento (lit. carrying), but this
term is more properly reserved for an entirely different effect, viz., when a
singer, or player on a stringed instrument, passes from a high tone to a low one
(or vice versa) touching lightly on some or all of the diatonic tones between
the two melody tones.
57. The horizontal dash over a note  indicates that the tone is to be slightly
accented, and sustained. This mark is also sometimes used after a staccato
passage to show that the tones are no longer to be performed in detached
fashion, but are to be sustained. This latter use is especially common in music
for stringed instruments.
58. The combination of dash and dot over a note  indicates that the tone is to
be slightly accented and separated from its neighboring tones.
59. Accent marks are made in a variety of fashions. The most common forms
follow.  sf fz. All indicate that a certain tone or chord is to be
differentiated from its neighboring tones or chords by receiving a certain
relative amount of stress.
60. In music for keyboard instruments it is sometimes necessary to indicate that
a certain part is to be played by a certain hand. The abbreviations r.h. (right
hand), m.d. (mano destra, It.), and m.d. (main droite, Fr.), designate that a
passage or tone is to be played with the right hand, while l.h. (left hand),
m.s. (mano sinistra, It.), and m.g. (main gauche, Fr.), show that the left hand
is to be employed.[Pg 21]61. The wavy line placed vertically beside a chord 
indicates that the tones are to be sounded consecutively instead of
simultaneously, beginning with the lowest tone, all tones being sustained until
the duration-value of the chord has expired. This is called arpeggio playing.
When the wavy line extends through the entire chord (covering both staffs) as in
Fig. 38, all the tones of the chord are to be played one after another,
beginning with the lowest: but if there is a separate wavy line for each staff
as at Fig. 39 then the lowest tone represented on the upper staff is to be
played simultaneously with the lowest tone represented on the bass staff.
 

[Listen]
 
The word arpeggio (plural arpeggi) is a derivation of the Italian word arpa
(meaning harp), and from this word arpa and its corresponding verb arpeggiare
(to play on the harp) are derived also a number of other terms commonly used in
instrumental music. Among these are—arpeggiamento, arpeggiando, arpeggiato,
etc., all of these terms referring to a harp style of performance, the tones
being sounded one after another in rapid succession instead of simultaneously as
on the piano.
62. The sign  over a note indicates that the tone is to be begun softly,
gradually increased in power, and as gradually decreased again, ending as softly
as it began. In vocal music this effect is called messa di voce.
63. In music for stringed instruments of the violin family, the sign  indicates
down-bow and the sign  up-bow. In cello music the down-bow sign is sometimes
written .

[Pg 22]CHAPTER VI
Embellishments
64. Embellishments (or graces) (Fr. agréments) are ornamental tones, either
represented in full in the score or indicated by certain signs. The following
are the embellishments most commonly found: Trill (or shake), mordent, inverted
mordent (or prall trill), turn (gruppetto), inverted turn, appoggiatura and
acciaccatura.
Usage varies greatly in the interpretation of the signs representing these
embellishments and it is impossible to give examples of all the different forms.
The following definitions represent therefore only the most commonly found
examples and the most generally accepted interpretations.
65. The trill (or shake) consists of the rapid alternation of two tones to the
full value of the printed note. The lower of these two tones is represented by
the printed note, while the upper one is the next higher tone in the diatonic
scale of the key in which the composition is written. The interval between the
two tones may therefore be either a half-step or a whole-step.
Whether the trill is to begin with the principal tone (represented by the
printed note) or with the one above is a matter of some dispute among theorists
and performers, but it may safely be said that the majority of modern writers on
the subject would have it begin on the principal tone rather than on the tone
above. Fig. 40.
When the principal note is preceded by a small note on the degree above, it is
of course understood that the trill begins on the tone above. Fig. 41.
The trill is indicated by the sign .
 

[Listen]
[Pg 23]

[Listen]
 
The above examples would be termed perfect trills because they close with a
turn. By inference, an imperfect trill is one closing without a turn.
66. The mordent  consists of three tones; first the one represented by the
printed note; second the one next below it in the diatonic scale; third the one
represented by the printed note again.
 

[Listen]
 
67. The double (or long) mordent has five tones (sometimes seven) instead of
three, the first two of the three tones of the regular mordent being repeated
once or more. (See Fig. 43.)
In the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as quickly
as possible, the time taken by the embellishment being subtracted from the value
of the principal note as printed.
 

[Listen]
 
68. The inverted mordent  (note the absence of the vertical line) is like the
mordent except that the tone below is replaced by the tone above in each case.
This ornament is sometimes called a "transient shake" because it is really only
a part of the more elaborate grace called "trill." (See Fig. 44.)[Pg 24]

[Listen]
 
The confusion at present attending the interpretation of the last two
embellishments described, might be largely obviated if the suggestion of a
recent writer[11] to call the one the upward mordent, and the other the downward
mordent were to be universally adopted.
69. The turn consists of four tones; first, the diatonic scale-tone above the
principal tone; second, the principal tone itself; third, the tone below the
principal tone; and fourth, the principal tone again.
When the sign ( or ) occurs over a note of small value in rapid tempo (Fig. 45)
the turn consists of four tones of equal value; but if it occurs over a note of
greater value, or in a slow tempo, the tones are usually played quickly (like
the mordent), and the fourth tone is then held until the time-value of the note
has expired. (Fig. 46.)
 

[Listen]
 
70. When the turn-sign is placed a little to the right of the note the principal
tone is sounded first and held to almost its full time-value, then the turn is
played just before the next tone of the melody. In this case the four tones are
of equal length as in the first example. (See Fig. 47.)
 

[Listen]
 
The student should note the difference between these two effects; in the case of
a turn over the note the turn comes at the beginning, but in the case of the
sign after the note the turn comes at the very end. But in both cases the time
taken by the embel[Pg 25]lishment is taken from the time-value of the principal
note. For further details see Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. V,
p. 184. Also Elson, op. cit. p. 274.
71. Sometimes an accidental occurs with the turn, and in this case when written
above the sign it refers to the highest tone of the turn, but when written
below, to the lowest (Fig. 48).
 

[Listen]
 
72. In the inverted turn the order of tones is reversed, the lowest one coming
first, the principal tone next, the highest tone third, and the principal tone
again, last.
 

[Listen]
 
73. The appoggiatura (lit. leaning note) consists of an ornamental tone
introduced before a tone of a melody, thus delaying the melody tone until the
ornamental tone has been heard. The time taken for this ornamental tone is taken
from that of the melody tone.
The appoggiatura was formerly classified into long appoggiatura and short
appoggiatura, but modern writers seem to consider the term "short appoggiatura"
to be synonymous with acciaccatura[12], and to avoid confusion the word
acciaccatura will be used in this sense, and defined under its own heading.
74. Three rules for the interpretation of the appoggiatura are commonly cited,
viz.:
(1) When it is possible to divide the principal tone into halves, then the
appoggiatura receives one-half the value of the printed note. (Fig. 50.)[Pg
26](2) When the principal note is dotted (division into halves being therefore
not possible), the appoggiatura receives two-thirds of the value. (Fig. 51.)
(3) When the principal note is tied to a note of smaller denomination the
appoggiatura receives the value of the first of the two notes. (Fig. 52.)
 

[Listen]
 
75. The acciaccatura (or short appoggiatura) is written like the appoggiatura
except that it has a light stroke across its stem.  It has no definite
duration-value, but is sounded as quickly as possible, taking its time from that
of the principal tone. The appoggiatura is always accented, but the acciaccatura
never is, the stress always falling on the melody tone. (See Grove, op. cit.
Vol. I, p. 96.)
The use of embellishments is on the wane, and the student of to-day needs the
above information only to aid him in the interpretation of music written in
previous centuries. In the early days of instrumental music it was necessary to
introduce graces of all sorts because the instruments in use were not capable of
sustaining tone for any length of time; but with the advent of the modern piano
with its comparatively great sustaining power, and also with the advent in vocal
music of a new style of singing (German Lieder singing as contrasted with
Italian coloratura singing), ornamental tones were used less and less, and when
found now are usually written out in full in the score instead of being
indicated by signs.

[Pg 27]CHAPTER VII
Scales
76. A scale (from scala, a Latin word meaning ladder; Ger. Ton-leiter) is an
ascending or descending series of tones, progressing according to some definite
system, and all bearing (in the case of tonality scales at least) a very
intimate relation to the first tone—the key-tone or tonic. (See p. 28, Sec. 78;
also note 1 at bottom of p. 38.)
Many different kinds of scales have existed in various musical eras, the point
of resemblance among them all being the fact that they have all more or less
recognized the octave as the natural limit of the series. The difference among
the various scales has been in the selection of intervals between the
scale-tones, and, consequently, in the number of tones within the octave. Thus
e.g., in our major scale the intervals between the tones are all whole-steps
except two (which are half-steps), and the result is a scale of eight tones
(including in this number both the key-tone and its octave): but in the
so-called pentatonic scale of the Chinese and other older civilizations we find
larger intervals (e.g., the step-and-a-half), and consequently a smaller number
of tones within the octave. Thus in the scale upon which many of the older
Scotch folk songs are based the intervals are arranged as follows:
      1whole
      step2whole
      step3step-and-
      a-half4whole
      step5step-and-
      a-half6

The result is a scale of six tones, corresponding approximately with C—D—E—G—A—C
in our modern system.
The term pentatonic is thus seen to be a misnomer since the sixth tone is
necessary for the completion of the series, just as the eighth tone is essential
in our diatonic scales.
The following Chinese tune (called "Jasmine") is based on the pentatonic scale.
 

[Listen]
 
[Pg 28]77. In studying the theory of the scale the student should bear in mind
the fact that a scale is not an arbitrary series of tones which some one has
invented, and which others are required to make use of. It is rather the result
of accustoming the ear to certain melodic combinations (which were originally
hit upon by accident), and finally analyzing and systematizing these
combinations into a certain definite order or arrangement. The application of
this idea may be verified when it is recalled that most primitive peoples have
invented melodies of some sort, but that only in modern times, and particularly
since the development of instrumental music, have these melodies been analyzed,
and the scale upon which they have been based, discovered, the inventors of the
melodies being themselves wholly ignorant of the existence of such scales.
78. A key is a number of tones grouping themselves naturally (both melodically
and harmonically) about a central tone—the key tone. The word tonality is often
used synonymously with key in this sense.
The difference between key and scale is therefore this, that while both key and
scale employ the same tone material, by key we mean the material in general,
without any particular order or arrangement in mind, while by scale we mean the
same tones, but now arranged into a regular ascending or descending series. It
should be noted in this connection also that not all scales present an equally
good opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality or
key-feeling: neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale possess the
necessary characteristics for being used as tonality scales in the same sense
that our major and minor scales are so used.
79. There are three general classes of scales extant at the present time, viz.:
(1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.[13]
80. The word diatonic means "through the tones" (i.e., through the tones of the
key), and is applied to both major and minor scales of our modern tonality
system. In general a diatonic scale may be defined as one which proceeds by
half-steps and whole-steps. There is, however, one exception to[Pg 29] this
principle, viz., in the progression six to seven in the harmonic minor scale,
which is of course a step-and-a-half. (See p. 33, Sec. 86.)
81. A major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals between the tones are
arranged as follows:
      1whole
      step2whole
      step3half
      step4whole
      step5whole
      step6whole
      step7half
      step8

In other words, a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals between
three and four, and between seven and eight are half-steps, all the others being
whole-steps. A composition based on this scale is said to be written in the
major mode, or in a major key. The major diatonic scale may begin on any one of
the twelve pitches C, C♯ or D♭, D, D♯ or E♭, E, F, F♯ or G♭, G, G♯ or A♭, A, A♯
or B♭, B, but in each case it is the same scale because the intervals between
its tones are the same. We have then one major scale only, but this scale may be
written in many different positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any
one of a number of different pitches.
82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two identical
series of four tones each; i.e., the first four tones of the scale are separated
from one another by exactly the same intervals and these intervals appear in
exactly the same order as in the case of the last four tones of the scale. Fig.
53 will make this clear. The first four tones of any diatonic scale (major or
minor) are often referred to as the lower tetrachord[14] and the upper four
tones as the upper tetrachord.
 

[Listen]
[Pg 30]
It is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of any sharp scale
is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of the next major scale
involving sharps, while the lower tetrachord of any flat scale is used as the
upper tetrachord of the next flat scale. See Figs. 54 and 55.
 

[Listen]
 
83. From the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written in
fifteen different positions, as follows:
 

[Listen]
 
[Pg 31]It will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning on
F♯ and G♭ call for the same keys on the piano, i.e., while the notation is
different, the actual tones of the scale are the same. The scales of C♯ and D♭
likewise employ the same tones. When two scales thus employ the same tones[Pg
32] but differ in notation they are said to be enharmonic, (cf. p. 38, Sec. 93.)
Note.—The student is advised to adopt some uniform method of writing scales,
preferably the one followed in those given above, the necessary sharps and flats
appearing before the notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the
end as a signature. He is also advised to repeat these scales and signatures
over and over until absolute familiarity is attained. E.g., E—F♯—G♯—A—B—C♯—D♯—E;
signature, four sharps, F, C, G, and D.

[Pg 33]CHAPTER VIII
Scales (Continued)
84. The minor diatonic scale is used in several slightly different forms, but
the characteristic interval between the first and third tones (which
differentiates it from the major scale) remains the same in every case. This
interval between the first and third tones consists of four half-steps in the
major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale and this difference in
size has given rise to the designation major for the scale having the larger
third, and minor for the scale having the smaller one.
85. The original (or primitive) form of the minor scale has its tones arranged
as follows.
      1whole
      step2half
      step3whole
      step4half
      step5half
      step6whole
      step7whole
      step8

As its name implies, this is the oldest of the three forms (being derived from
the old Greek Aeolian scale), but because of the absence of a "leading tone" it
is suitable for the simplest one-part music only, and is therefore little used
at present.
86. The harmonic minor scale is like the primitive form except that it
substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the older (i.e.,
the primitive) form. This change was made because the development of writing
music in several parts (particularly harmonic part-writing) made necessary a
"leading tone," i.e., a tone with a strong tendency to move on up to the
key-tone as a closing point. In order[Pg 34] to secure a tone with such a
strongly upward tendency the interval between seven and eight had to be reduced
in size to a half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone
of the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and
seventh tones of the scale.
      1whole
      step2half
      step3whole
      step4whole
      step5half
      step6step and
      a half7half
      step8

87. The melodic minor scale substitutes a tone one half-step higher than six as
well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change is made in the
ascending scale only, the descending scale being like the primitive form. The
higher sixth (commonly referred to as the "raised sixth") was used to get rid of
the unmelodic interval of a step-and-a-half[15] (augmented second), while the
return to the primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is
too much like the tonic major scale.
      1whole
      step2half
      step3whole
      step4whole
      step5whole
      step6whole
      step7half
      step8
      7whole
      step6half
      step5whole
      step4whole
      step3half
      step2whole
      step1

This form is used only to a very limited extent, and then principally in vocal
music, the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of the augmented
second.
88. The minor scale in its various positions (up to five sharps and five flats)
and in all three forms follows: a composition based on any one of these forms
(or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to be in the minor mode.
It will be noted that the first four tones are alike in all three forms; i.e.,
the lower tetrachord in the minor scale is invariable no matter, what may happen
to the upper tetrachord. The sign + marks the step-and-a-half.[Pg 35]

[Enlarge]
[Listen to A minor scales]
 
Note.—The student is advised to recite the harmonic form of the minor scale as
was suggested in the case of the major scale, noting that the "raised seventh"
does not affect the key-signature. E.g.,—E—F♯—G—A—B—C—D♯—E; signature, one
sharp, F.
[Pg 36]89. A minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to
be its relative minor. E.g.,—e is the relative minor of G, c of E♭, d of F,
etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor key or scale, while the
capital letter indicates the major key or scale unless accompanied by the word
minor. Relative keys are therefore defined as those having the same signature. G
and e are relative keys, as are also A and f♯, etc.
90. A minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is referred to
as its tonic minor. Thus, e.g., c with three flats in its signature is the tonic
minor of C with all degrees in natural condition; e with one sharp is the tonic
minor of E with four sharps, etc. Tonic keys are therefore those having the same
key-tone.
91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major and minor) are often
referred to by specific names, as follows:
1. Tonic—the tone. (This refers to the fact that the tonic is the principal
tone, or generating tone of the key, i.e., it is the tone.)
2. Super-tonic—above the tone.
3. Mediant—midway between tonic and dominant.
4. Sub-dominant—the under dominant. (This name does not refer to the position of
the tone under the dominant but to the fact that the fifth below the tonic is
also a dominant tone—the under dominant—just as the fifth above is the upper
dominant).
5. Dominant—the governing tone. (From the Latin word dominus meaning master.)
6. Super-dominant—above the dominant. Or Sub-mediant—midway between tonic and
sub-dominant.
7. Leading tone—the tone which demands resolution to the tonic (one-half step
above it).
8. Octave—the eighth tone.
[Pg 37]92. The syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales
in teaching sight-singing are as follows:[16]
Major—DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI, DO.

Minor[17]—original—LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA.
harmonic—LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SI, LA.
melodic —LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI, SI, LA, SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA.

It is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and pronunciation that
have occurred (and are still occurring) in these syllables. The first one (ut)
was changed to DO as early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of
producing a good singing tone on ut. For the same reason and also in order to
avoid having two diatonic syllables with the same initial letter, the
tonic-sol-fa system (invented in England about 1812 and systematized about 1850)
changed SI to TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by teachers
of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate tonic-sol-fa spelling of
the diatonic syllables (DOH, LAH, etc.), has not, however, been favorably
received in this country and the tendency seems to be toward still further
simplification rather than toward elaboration. It is probable that further
changes in both spelling and pronunciation will be made in the near future, one
such change that seems especially desirable being some other syllable than RE
for the second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable may be
reserved for "flat-two," thus providing a uniform vowel-sound for all
intermediate tones of the descending chromatic scale, as is already the case in
the ascending form.
[Pg 38]93. The chromatic scale[18] is one which proceeds always by half-steps.
Its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what tone it begins.
Since, however, we have (from the standpoint of the piano keyboard) five pairs
of tones[19] which are enharmonically the same, it may readily be seen that the
chromatic scale might be notated in all sorts of fashions, and this is in fact
the real status of the matter, there being no one method uniformly agreed upon
by composers.
Parry (Grove's Dictionary, article chromatic) recommends writing the scale with
such accidentals as can occur in chromatic chords without changing the key in
which the passage occurs. Thus, taking C as a type, "the first accidental will
be D♭, as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic; the next will be E♭,
the minor third of the key; the next F♯, the major third of the super-tonic—all
of which can occur without causing modulation—and the remaining two will be A♭
and B♭, the minor sixth and seventh of the key." According to this plan the
chromatic scale beginning with C would be spelled—C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, F♯, G, A♭,
A, B♭, B, C—the form being the same both ascending and descending. This is of
course written exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of such
a form is its definiteness.
94. For sight-singing purposes the chromatic scale[20] is usually written by
representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps, (in some cases
naturals and double-sharps), and the intermediate tones in descending by flats
(sometimes naturals and double-flats). The chromatic scale in nine different
positions, written from this standpoint, follows, and the syllables most
commonly applied in sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales
the student of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common prac[Pg
39]tice of modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys, the intermediate
tones ♯4 and ♭7 are quite universally used in both ascending and descending
melody passages. In other words the scales that follow would more nearly
represent actual usage if in each case ♯4 (FI) were substituted for ♭5 (SE) in
the descending scale; and if ♭7 (TE) were substituted for ♯6 (LI) in the
ascending form.
 

[Listen to C chromatic scale]
 
[Pg 40]Note.—In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing standpoint the
student is urged to adopt a three-step process; first, writing the major
diatonic scale both ascending and descending; second, marking the half-steps;
third, inserting accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the
above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been represented by black
note-heads so as to differentiate them from the notes representing diatonic
scale tones.
95. The whole-step scale (the third type mentioned in Sec. 79) is, as its name
implies, a scale in which the intervals between the tones consist in every
instance of whole-steps. This reduces the number of tones in the scale to seven.
Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D, E, F♯ or G♭, A♭, B♭, C. This scale has
been used somewhat extensively by the ultramodern French school of composition
represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any progress toward
universal adoption. The remarks of a recent English writer[21] on this subject
may be interesting to the student who is puzzled by the apparent present-day
tendencies of French music. He says:
"The student of some interesting modern developments will also speedily discover
that the adoption of the so-called whole-tone scale as a basis of music is,
except upon a keyed instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament,
unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument can play the
scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave which is in tune with the starting
note, unless he deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters it
while playing it. The obvious result of the application of the whole-tone scale
to an orchestra or a string quartet would be to force them to adopt the equal
temperament of the pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of
tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the pure scale would be
distorted and destroyed, unless string players were to face the[Pg 41]
practically impossible drudgery of studying both the equal temperament and the
pure scale from the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's
notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the scale of western
nations will be the best antidote to fads founded upon ignorance of it. It is a
curious commentary upon this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third
act of Tristan (bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone scale and drew
his pen through it, as was to be expected from a composer whose every work
proves the writer to have had the pure scale inbred in him."
There may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether Mr.
Stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the difference
between "tempered" and "pure" scales,[22] but even so, there is a far more
potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never become popular as the
major and minor scales now are, viz., the fact that it offers no possibility of
inculcating tonality feeling, which has always been the basis of even the
simplest primitive music. Tonality scales give rise to a feeling of alternate
periods of contraction and relaxation—an active tone (or chord) followed by a
passive one, but no such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it
seems suitable therefore only for that class of music whose outlines are
purposely intended to be vague and indefinite—the impressionistic style of music
writing.

[Pg 42]CHAPTER IX
Auxiliary Words and Endings
96. Being a list of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and endings,
often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical effects.
A—preposition—variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards.
A cappella—in church style.
A capriccio—at the fancy of the performer.
À deux mains—for two hands.
A mezza voce—with half voice.

À la, or alla—in the manner of. Alla marcia—in the style of a march.
Assai—very, or very much. Allegro assai—very fast.
Ben—well. Ben marcato—well marked.
Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collo—with, or with the.
Con amore—with tenderness.
Colla voce—with the voice.

Come—as, like. Come primo—as at first.
Contra—against. In compound words means "an octave below."
Da—from. Da Capo—from the head.
Di—by, with, of, for. Di bravura—with daring.
Di molto—exceedingly—very much. Allegro di molto—exceedingly rapid.
Doppio—double. Doppio movimento—double movement.
E, ed, et—and. Cresc. et accel.—louder and faster.
Ensemble—together, the opposite of solo.
Il, La, l', le—the. Il basso—the bass. L'istesso tempo—the same speed.
Il più—the most. Il più forte possible—as loudly as possible.
Issimo—Italian superlative ending. Forte—fortissimo.
Ino, etto—Italian diminutive endings. Andante—andantino. Poco—pochetto.
Meno—less. Meno forte—less loud.
Mente—the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb. Largo
largamente.
Mezzo or mezza—half, or medium. Mezzo forte—medium loud.
Molto—much, or very much. Molto cresc.—very much louder.
Nel, nella, etc.—in the, or at the. Nel battere—at the down beat.
Non—not. Non tanto—not too much.
Ossia—or else. Ossia più facile—or else more easily.
Per—for. Per il violino—for the violin.
Peu—little. Un peu cresc.—a little increase in tone.
Più—more. Più forte—more loudly.[Pg 43]Poco—little. Poco a poco—little by
little.
Poi—then. E poi la coda—and then the coda.
Possibile—possible. Forte possibile—as loudly as possible.
Quasi—in the manner of. Allegro quasi andante—a fairly rapid movement, yet in
the style of an andante; almost as slow as an andante.
Sans—without. Sans pedales—without pedals.
Sempre—always, or continually. Sempre forte—a long passage to be played forte
throughout its entirety.
Senza—without. Senza accompagnamento—without accompaniment.
Sino, sin—as far as. See p. 14, note.
Solo—alone. Opposite of ensemble.
Sub—under or lower. Sub-dominant—the under dominant.
Tanto—same as troppo, q.v.
Tre—three. Tre corde—three strings.
Très—very. Très vivement—very lively.
Troppo—too much. Non tanto allegro, or non troppo allegro—not too fast.
Una, un, uno—one, or a. Una corda—one string. Un peu—a little.
A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student greatly in
arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping to look up each
individual one.

[Pg 44]CHAPTER X
Measure
97. From the standpoint of the eye, a measure is that portion of the staff found
between two bars, (in certain cases this space may be less than a measure, as
e.g., at the beginning and end of a movement); but from the standpoint of the
ear a single, isolated measure is not possible, and the term must therefore be
defined in the plural form.
Measures are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each group having
at least one accented and one non-accented beat. The strongest accent falls
normally on the first beat in the measure.
Two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical measure:
(1) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always actually
sounded, one or more of these beats being stronger than the rest;
(2) Certain rhythmic figures ( etc.) which form the actual musical content of
these groups.
The student will note the essential difference between rhythm and measure.
Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a series of beats (or pulses),
while measure is the grouping of these beats according to some specified system.
In listening to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel the rhythm
equally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats into—one, two | one,
two |—etc., while B feels the groups as—one, two, three, four | one, two, three,
four |—etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing, inherent in the music
itself, while measure is to a certain extent at least an arbitrary grouping
which musicians have adopted for practical purposes.
98. In syncopation the normal system of accenting is temporarily suspended and
the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part of the measure.
Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary interruption of a
normal[Pg 45] series of accents, i.e., accenting a beat that is usually not
accented. Thus e.g., in Fig. 56, measure one has the regular system of accents
normally found in four-quarter-measure, (strong accent on one, secondary accent
on three); but measure three has only one accent, and it falls on the second
beat.
 

[Listen]
 
99. Measures are usually classified as simple and compound. A simple measure is
one which has but a single accent, i.e., the measure cannot be divided into
smaller constituent groups. There are two main classes of simple measures,
two-beat measure, and three-beat measure. A compound measure is (as its name
implies) one made up by combining two or more simple measures, or by the
elaboration of a single measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups.
The principal compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred
to as compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and twelve-beat
measures are also classified as compound measures.
An English writer[23] classifies measures as duple, triple, or quadruple,
specifying that a simple measure is one in which each beat is represented by a
note whose value can be divided into halves ( etc.) and that a compound measure
is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note, whose value can be
divided into three parts, (). There is thus seen to be considerable difference
of opinion as to the meaning of the words simple and compound when applied in
this connection, the principal question at issue being whether four-beat measure
is an individual variety, or whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat
measures, either by placing two of these in a group or by the elaboration of a
single measure into a larger number of beats, as is often necessary in slow
tempi. Perhaps the easiest way out of the difficulty is to admit that both may
be true—but in different compositions. That is, it is frequently impossible to
tell whether a composition that is being listened to is in two-beat, or in
four-beat measure; and yet it is sometimes possible so to discriminate. Since,
however, one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between two-beat and
four-beat measures, it will probably be best to leave the original
classification intact and regard four-beat measure as a compound variety.
[Pg 46]100. The commonest varieties of measure are:
1. Duple (sometimes called even measure, or even time), in which there are two
beats, the first one being accented. Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8,
2/2, two-quarter,[24] two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively.
2. Triple, (the old perfect measure), in which there are three beats, the first
one being accented, the second and third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2,
three-eighth, three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively.
3. Quadruple, in which there are four beats, the first and third being accented
(primary accent on one, secondary accent on three), the second and fourth
unaccented. (See note above, under Sec. 99.)
4. Sextuple, in which there are six beats, the first and fourth being accented,
the others not. In rapid tempi this is always taken as compound duple measure, a
dotted quarter note having a beat. It will be noted that the two measures  are
identical in effect with .
101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but these are
practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures respectively,
being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is thought of as a
triplet.  is identical in effect with .
102. Quintuple (five-beat) and septuple (seven-beat) measures are occasionally
met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic. The five-beat measure
is taken as a combination of three and two, or of two and three (sometimes a
mixture of both in the same composition), while the[Pg 47] seven-beat measure is
taken in groups of four and three, or of three and four.
103. The sign  is usually understood to mean four-quarter measure, and the sign
, two-half measure, but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes
used to indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the sign 
always indicates that a half-note has a beat.  may occasionally be found
indicating four-half measure but this is rare.
The student will note that the sign  is not a letter C, but an incomplete
circle, differentiating two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect)
measure. See Appendix A, p. 106.

[Pg 48]CHAPTER XI
Tempo
104. The word time in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused, having been
used to indicate:
(1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong."
(2) Variety of measure-signature; as "two-four time."
(3) Rate of speed; as "the time was too slow."
To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and inexact
use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certain changes in
terminology as noted in Sections 105, 106, and 107. Such changes may cause some
confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if our musical terminology is to be
at all exact.
105. The first of the changes mentioned in the above paragraph is to substitute
the word rhythm for the word time when correcting mistakes involving misplaced
accent, etc. E.g., "Your rhythm in the third measure of the lower score was
wrong," instead of "Your time—was wrong."
106. The second change mentioned would eliminate such blind and misleading
expressions as "two-four time," "three-four time," "four-four time," "six-eight
time," etc., and substitute therefor such self-explanatory designations as
"two-quarter measure," "three-quarter measure," "four-quarter measure,"
"six-eighth measure," etc. E.g., "The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op.
2, No. 3, is in four-quarter measure."
107. The third change referred to above would substitute the word tempo
(plural—tempi) for the word time in all allusions to rate of speed. E.g., "The
scherzo was played in very rapid tempo."[Pg 49]The word tempo has been used in
this connection so long by professional musicians that there can be no possible
objection to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there is a
decided advantage in having a word that is understood in all countries where
modern music (i.e., civilized music) is performed, and just here is found the
principal reason for the popularity of the Italian language in musical
terminology. Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried to
break down this popularity by using their own respective vernaculars in both
tempo and dynamic indications, but in spite of these attempts the Italian
language is still quite universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so,
for if we are to have a music notation that is universal, so that an American is
able to play music written by a Frenchman or a German, or a Russian, then we
ought also to have a certain number of expressions referring to tempo, etc.,
which will be understood by all, i.e., a music terminology that is universal.
The Italian language was the first in the field, is the most universally known
in this particular at the present time, and is entirely adequate. It should
therefore be retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto.
108. There are several ways of finding the correct tempo of a composition:
1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of many compositions.
Thus e.g., the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's Metronome 92) means that if the metronome
(either Maelzel's or some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at
the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they will serve to
indicate to the player or singer the rate at which the beats (or pulses) should
follow one another. This is undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining
tempi in spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes[25] and of the mistakes
which composers themselves often make in giving metronomic indications.
2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is to play it at
different tempi and then to choose the one that "feels right" for that
particular piece of music. This is perhaps the best means of getting at the
correct tempo but is open only to the[Pg 50] musician of long experience, sure
judgment, and sound scholarship.
3. A third method of finding tempi is through the interpretation of certain
words used quite universally by composers to indicate the approximate rate of
speed and the general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method is
that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same word to indicate the
same tempo, so that no absolute rate of speed can be indicated, and in the last
analysis the conductor or performer must fall back on the second method cited
above—i.e., individual judgment.
109. In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions relating to
tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful in giving at least a
hint of what was in the composer's mind as he conceived the music that we are
trying to interpret. Since a number of the terms overlap in meaning, and since
the meaning of no single term is absolute, these expressions relating to tempo
are best studied in groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:
1. Grave (lit. weighty, serious), larghissimo, adagissimo, and
lentissimo—indicating the very slowest tempo used in rendering music.
2. Largo,[26] adagio,[27] and lento—indicating quite a slow tempo.
3. Larghetto (i.e., a little largo) and adagietto (a little adagio)—a slow
tempo, but not quite so slow as largo, etc.
4. Andante (going, or walking, as contrasted with running) and
andantino—indicating a moderately slow tempo.[Pg 51]Andantino is now quite
universally taken slightly faster than andante, in spite of the fact that if
andante means "going," and if "ino" is the diminutive ending, then andantino
means "going less," i.e., more slowly!
5. Moderato—a moderate tempo.
6. Allegro and allegretto[28]—a moderately quick tempo, allegretto being usually
interpreted as meaning a tempo somewhat slower than allegro.
The word allegro means literally happy, joyous, and this literal meaning is
still sometimes applicable, but in the majority of instances the term refers
only to rate of speed.
7. Vivo, vivace, (lit. lively)—a tempo between allegro and presto.
8. Presto, prestissimo, vivacissimo, and prestissimo possibile—the most rapid
tempo possible.

[Pg 52]CHAPTER XII
Tempo (Continued)
110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined in Sec. 109 with one another
and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with their approximate
meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression not found in the list may
usually be arrived at by consulting the terms defined in paragraph 109 and
recalling the use of certain auxiliary terms quoted in Chapter IX.
Largo assai—very slow.
Largo di molto—very slow.
Largo ma non troppo—slow, but not too slow.
Largo un poco—slow, but not so slow as largo. (Cf. larghetto.)
Lentemente—slowly.
Lentando—with increasing slowness.
Très lentement—very slowly.
Lentissamente—very slowly.
Lentissamamente—very slowly.
Lento assai—very slowly.
Lento a capriccio—slowly but capriciously.
Lento di molto—very slowly.
Andante affettuoso—moderately slow, and with tenderness and pathos.
Andante amabile—moderately slow, and lovingly.
Andante cantabile—moderately slow, and in singing style.
Andante grazioso—moderately slow, and gracefully.
Andante maestoso—moderately slow, and majestically.
Andante con moto—slightly faster than andante.
Andante (ma) non troppo—not too slowly.
Andante pastorale—moderately slow, and in simple and unaffected style; (lit.
rural, pastoral).
Andante quasi allegro—almost as rapid in tempo as allegro; (lit. an andante in
the style of allegro).
Andante sostenuto—moderately slow and sustained.
Allegrissimo—much faster than allegro. (The superlative degree of allegro.)
Allegro agitato—a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated style.
Allegro appassionata—a moderately rapid tempo, and in passionate style.
Allegro assai (very allegro)—faster than allegro.
Allegro commodo—a conveniently rapid tempo.
Allegro con brio—an allegro played in brilliant style. Faster than allegro.[Pg
53]Allegro con fuoco—an allegro played with fire, i.e., with extreme animation.
Faster than allegro.
Allegro con spirito—an allegro performed with spirit.
Allegro con moto—faster than allegro.
Allegro di bravura—an allegro performed in brilliant style, i.e., demanding
great skill in execution.
Allegro furioso (furiously)—quicker than allegro; very brilliant.
Allegro giusto—an allegro movement, but in exact rhythm.
Allegro ma grazioso—an allegro played in graceful style.
Allegro (ma) non tanto—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.
Allegro (ma) non troppo—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.
Allegro (ma) non presto—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.
Allegro moderato—slower than allegro.
Allegro vivace—faster than allegro.
Presto assai—as rapidly as possible.
Presto (ma) non troppo—a presto movement, but not too rapid.
111. There are certain terms which indicate a modification of the normal tempo
of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a) those terms which
indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those which indicate in general a
more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions of these two classes are shown below.
(a) Terms indicating a slower tempo.
1. Terms indicating a gradual retard.
Ritenente, (rit.), ritenuto (rit.), ritardando (rit.), rallentando (rall.),
slentando.
2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely slower at once.
Più lento (lit. more slowly), meno mosso (lit. less movement).
3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase in power.
Largando, allargando. These words are both derived from largo, meaning large,
broad.
(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see page 59, Sec. 127.)
The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2 as given above:
the terms in group 1 indicate that each measure, and even each pulse in the
measure, is a little slower than the preceding one, while such terms as più
lento and meno mosso[Pg 54] indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly slower
and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some composers (e.g., Beethoven
and Couperin) have evidently had this same distinction in mind between
rallentando and ritardando on the one hand, and ritenuto and ritenente on the
other, considering the former (rall. and rit.) to indicate a gradually
slackening speed, and the latter (ritenuto and ritenente) to indicate a
definitely slower rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate
between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be worth while for the
student to try to remember the distinction.
(b) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.
1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.
Accelerando, affrettando (this term implies some degree of excitement also),
stringendo, poco a poco animato.
2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely faster at once.
Più allegro, più tosto, più mosso, stretto, un poco animato.
112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been
suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some such
expression as a tempo (lit. in time), a tempo primo (lit. in the first time),
tempo primo, or tempo.
113. Tempo rubato (or a tempo rubato) means literally in robbed time, i.e.,
duration taken from one measure or beat and given to another, but in modern
practice the term is quite generally applied to any irregularity of rhythm or
tempo not definitely indicated in the score.
The terms ad libitum, (ad lib.), a piacere, and a capriccio, also indicate a
modification of the tempo at the will of the performer. Ad libitum means at
liberty; a piacere, at pleasure; and a capriccio, at the caprice (of the
performer).
114. The term tempo giusto is the opposite of tempo rubato (and of the other
terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally in exact time. (Tempo giusto
is sometimes translated quite rapidly,[29] but this is very unusual.)
[Pg 55]115. L'istesso tempo means—at the same rate of speed. E.g., when a
measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note from a
quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried through the entire
movement.
116. Tenuto (ten.) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to its full
value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the
staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used merely as a warning not
to slight a melody-tone—i.e., to give it its full value.
117. Veloce means—swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages (e.g., cadenzas)
which are to be played as rapidly as possible without much regard for measure
rhythm. The words rapidamente, brillante and volante (flying) have the same
meaning as veloce.
118. The following expressions referring to tempo are also in common use but
cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already defined.
Con moto—with motion; i.e., not too slow.
Pesante—slowly, heavily.
Doppio movimento—twice as rapid as before.
Tempo ordinario—in ordinary tempo.
Tempo commodo—in convenient tempo.
Sempre lento malinconico assai—always slowly and in a very melancholy style.
Animando, animato, con anima—with animation.
Agitato—agitated.
119. Tempo di marcia is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783) as
equivalent to andante, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives tempo di menuetto as
equivalent to allegretto, and tempo di valso as equivalent to allegro moderato
(which he regards as indicating a more rapid tempo than allegretto).

[Pg 56]CHAPTER XIII
Dynamics
120. The word dynamics (cf. dynamic—the opposite of static) as used in the
nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power (i.e., the
comparative loudness and softness) of tones.
As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to
dynamics are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to indicate that
one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not possible (nor desirable)
to indicate exactly how loud either is to be. Thus dynamics, perhaps even more
than tempo, will be seen to depend on the taste of the performer or conductor.
The following words referring to dynamics are in common use:
Pianisissimo (ppp)—as softly as possible. (It will be noted that this is a sort
of hyper-superlative of piano.)
Pianissimo (pp)—very softly. (The superlative of piano.)
Piano (p)—softly.
Mezzo piano (mp)—medium softly.
Mezzo forte (mf)—medium loudly.
Forte (f)—loudly (lit. strong).
Fortissimo (ff)—very loudly. (The superlative of forte.)
Fortisissimo (fff)—as loudly as possible.
The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both piano and forte
seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative degree as given above, but the
practice of using four, or even five p's or f's is not desirable.
121. The terms defined in Sec. 120 are often combined with others, as e.g.,
Pianissimo possibile—as softly as possible.
Piano assai—very softly.
Fortissimo possibile—as loudly as possible.
Forte piano (fp)—loud, followed at once by soft.
[Pg 57]As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other
expressions relating to dynamics may easily be arrived at by recalling the list
of auxiliary terms quoted under Sec. 96.
122. The terms sforzando, forzando, sforzato and forzato all indicate a strong
accent on a single tone or chord. These words are abbreviated as follows:—sf,fz,
and sfz, the abbreviation being placed directly above (sometimes below) the note
or chord affected. The signs  and  are also commonly used to indicate such an
accent.
In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in mind again the fact
that they have a relative rather than an absolute meaning: the mark sf occurring
in the midst of a piano passage will indicate a much milder form of accent than
would the same mark occurring in the midst of a forte passage.
123. The words rinforzando and rinforzato (abb.—rinf. and rfz.) mean literally
reinforced, and are used to indicate a sudden increase in power usually
extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of applying only to a single
tone or chord as in the case of sforzando, etc.
124. Crescendo (abb.—cresc. or ) means a gradual increase in power. It will be
noted that this word does not mean loud, nor does it mean a sudden increase in
power unless accompanied by some auxiliary term such as subito, or molto.
Broadly speaking there are two varieties of crescendo: (1) that in which the
same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that in which succeeding
tones are each sounded more strongly than the preceding one. The first variety
is possible only on instruments giving forth a tone which can be varied after it
begins. Thus e.g., the human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell
box, and certain wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at
first and gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has
been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box, kettle drum,
etc., the power of the[Pg 58] tone cannot be varied after the tone has once been
sounded, and a crescendo effect is therefore possible only in a passage, in
rendering which each succeeding tone is struck more forcibly than its immediate
predecessor. This second variety of crescendo offers a means of dramatic effect
which may be employed most strikingly, as e.g., when a long passage begins very
softly and increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the
instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an effect
is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements of the
Beethoven Fifth Symphony.
The difference between sforzando, rinforzando, and crescendo should now be
noted: sforzando indicates that a single tone or chord is to be louder;
rinforzando, that an entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first
tone; but crescendo indicates that there is to be a gradual increase in power,
this increase sometimes occurring during the sounding of a single tone, but more
often in a passage.
125. Certain combinations of the word crescendo with other words are so common
that they should be especially noted. Among these are:
Crescendo al fortissimo—keep on gradually increasing in power until the
fortissimo (or very loud) point has been reached.
Crescendo subito—increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).
Crescendo poco a poco—increase in power very, very gradually.
Crescendo poi diminuendo—first increase, then diminish the tone.
Crescendo e diminuendo—same as cresc. poi dim.
Crescendo molto—increase in power very greatly.
Crescendo ed animando poco a poco—growing gradually louder in tone and quicker
in tempo.
Crescendo ed affrettando—gradually louder and faster.
Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine—crescendo gradually even up to the very end.
126. Decrescendo (decresc. or ) means a gradual diminishing of the tone. It is
the opposite of crescendo. The word diminuendo is synonymous with decrescendo.
Decrescendo (or diminuendo) al pianissimo means—decrease gradually in power
until the pianissimo (or very soft) point is reached.[Pg 59]127. A number of
terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo are in use. The most common
of these are:—mancando, moriente,[30] morendo, perdendo (from perdere—to lose),
perdendosi, calando, and smorzando.[31] Such expressions are usually
translated—"gradua